Extra Credit blog

What was your favorite topic this semester? Why?

My favorite topic this semester was about the reproductive system because it was so interesting, i learned many things but i felt uncomfortable at the same time.  

What was your least favorite?

My least favorite this semester was crossing the flies because i dont like flies, and because they kept on moving so it was hard to identify if they were female or male.

What would you change about this class if you could?

Something i would change about this class would be the amount of online work from first semester like the online labs. But i think quizlets and reading quizzes are good to keep doing because it actually works. 

What do you feel is your biggest accomplishment in biology this year?

My biggest accomplishment would be that i learned something new that i did not learn in my normal biology class during freshmen year and that i disected many many many animals in class because  i usually would not want to touch them. 

Comparing 3 Invertabrates

Porifera

Porifera also known as a sponge is one of the most primitive multicellular aquatic animals. It lacks a respiratory organ and oxygen is supplied by a direct exchange between the tissues and surrounding water. It also has absence of a nervous system because it has lack of coordination in the oscula, pores, and choanocytes so the slow reaction of sponges to stimuli shows no nervous system. Sponges are also filter feeders; water is drawn into the spores tiny hair like flagella, passes through small pores and into the central cavities. Some Sponges start sexual reproduction when only a few weeks old while other wait till several years old. They reproduce sexually and asexually meaning only one gender at a time. They have no permanent gonad, instead number of areas of the sponge will during the reproduction period become changed to produce either sperm or egg.

http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1C1AFAB_enUS481US481&biw=1366&bih=667&tbm=isch&tbnid=nvAZkYOD7H_pnM:&imgrefurl=http://palaeos.com/metazoa/porifera/porifera.htm&docid=5g3xbkVtZ8U0yM&imgurl=http://palaeos.com/metazoa/porifera/images/rigida.jpg&w=400&h=274&ei=F-_LT9e8CcmK2gX86KXaCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=397&vpy=336&dur=405&hovh=186&hovw=271&tx=142&ty=62&sig=102282481332443564820&page=1&tbnh=135&tbnw=196&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:0,i:129

http://tolweb.org/Porifera/2464

Nematode

Nematodes (also known as roundworms) exist as parasites or as free living organisms and play a role as decomposers that break down organic materials to be utilized by bacteria. They have a worm structure with a lack of features such as cilia or a well defined head. They have an internal body cavity called pseudocoelom which looks like a tube that runs the whole length of their bodies, which also contains the intestines and reproductive organs of the roundworms. Nematodes have a nervous system contains nerves extending to the mouth and the length of the roundworms. There are two nerve cords to activate the muscles relalying sensory information. Nematodes contains a few small organs and a pharynx where food is pulled in and crushed and then moves to the gut cavity, where nutrients and wastes are spread throughout the body cavity by diffusion and taken out by the excretory canal tube. These roundworms have separate sexes when males use a special spine to inject sperm into the females gonophore, they lap up to 27 million eggs at a time. 
http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1C1AFAB_enUS481US481&biw=1366&bih=667&tbm=isch&tbnid=TFcRooS8WJuA0M:&imgrefurl=http://mint.ippc.orst.edu/rootnemaid.htm&docid=QreOav2BorCS7M&imgurl=http://mint.ippc.orst.edu/images/lesionnema_i.jpg&w=300&h=168&ei=5PTLT8eDO8Se2gWry_XaCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=423&vpy=435&dur=390&hovh=134&hovw=240&tx=153&ty=49&sig=102282481332443564820&page=3&tbnh=116&tbnw=207&start=45&ndsp=22&ved=1t:429,r:12,s:45,i:266

http://www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu/pathogens/nematodes.html

Mollusks

Mollusks are soft bodied invertebrates including snails, slugs, octopus, squid, clams, and mussels. Most of them have shells to protect them. Most mollusks have a muscular foot for creeping for burrowing. Some also have a head with sense organs. The soft body has lungs or gills for breathing and digestive and reproductive plants. Most mollusks have a rasping tongue call radula with tiny teeth which help scrapes its food into tiny chunks. Mollusks reproduce sexually. Slugs and snails possesses both female and male organs but still needs to mate for fertilization. Most lay eggs that hatch into small free swimming larvae. Mollusks have shells in many shapes and sizes to provide somewhere to hide  and to prevent the moist soft body from drying out. 

http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1C1AFAB_enUS481US481&biw=1366&bih=624&tbm=isch&tbnid=KfZlI4SWQo6LzM:&imgrefurl=http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ma-Mu/Mollusks.html&docid=M_3SSpcCwvO1RM&imgurl=http://www.scienceclarified.com/images/uesc_07_img0379.jpg&w=436&h=256&ei=nfnLT7WVN-Hu2QWdwcHaCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=913&vpy=187&dur=530&hovh=172&hovw=293&tx=197&ty=97&sig=102282481332443564820&page=1&tbnh=91&tbnw=155&start=0&ndsp=22&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:0,i:150

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/mollusca.php

Intelligence

Why is it important to define and debate our understanding of intelligence and its origins? How does this relate to you? 
It is important to define and debate our understanding of intelligence and it origin because it would help people understand what intelligence they have, so once they know they can start continuing to use their technique instead of using other techniques which wont work and just waste time. Debating about intelligence in class was important because i got to see both sides if intelligence was from environment or innate, at first i chose environment but once the debate went on, people on the innate side made me believe that innate influences intelligence.  There are many different types of intelligence, for example someone can be street smart and book smart, or can know a lot about music but not about other stuff. This relates to me because knowing what intelligence i have can benefit me of knowing how i study best.  I like to study from the book and not by visual or lectures. I am someone that needs background noise when i study because i cant concentrate with other noises. Knowing my studying skills will help me save time from studying another technique. 

How does Nephron work

The nephrons role is for the blood to filtered and urine formed. In each nephron, high pressure in the glomerulus pushes water and small dissolved materials into extravascular space of the Bowman’s capsule and into the tubule. The proximal tubule reabsorbs water, salts, glucose, and amino acids to maintain electrolyte levels in the body. The loop of Henle salts will be excreted in the urine, making a concentration gradient in the medulla. The Henle’s loop is absorbant to particular ions with the cortical thick draining into the distal convoluted tubule. The distal tubule contains cells that active transport and maintains urine and blood pH levels, especially the regulation of sodium and potassium. Fluid later passes from the distal tubule to the collecting ducts. Ultra filtration occurs in the cortex in the cortical collecting ducts, which is the last process of the nephron. The urine then passes through the collecting ducts through the drainage system of the kidney to the ureters and bladder for urination. The counter current system is similar to the nephron because the loop of henle is to be able to create dilute urine or concentrated urine depending on what the body wants and needs. Nephron is also similar to hydrostatic skeleton because their function both removes waste and both needs pressure to remove filters. 

http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Functions-of-the-Nephron-of-Kidney&id=1342876

http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&hl=en&sa=N&rlz=1C1AFAB_enUS481US481&biw=1517&bih=693&tbm=isch&tbnid=JhbjjXlL5GBZsM:&imgrefurl=http://analytical.wikia.com/wiki/Nephron&docid=zAG_sy1Yp0f4rM&imgurl=http://images.wikia.com/analytical/images/f/fe/Nephron.jpg&w=800&h=727&ei=iP3LT-jwFOjB2QWqjq3aCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=323&vpy=172&dur=359&hovh=213&hovw=235&tx=129&ty=120&sig=102282481332443564820&page=1&tbnh=138&tbnw=152&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:0,i:142

Starfish

Starfish are composed of a central disc from which arms sprout which makes it a radial symmetry. They are triploblastic because like humans they have three germ layers such as the ectoderm (outside), mesoderm (middle) and endoderm (inside). The coelom of a starfish is the secondary body cavity that forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. Starfish are really unique because they do not have blood but instead use sea water to pump around their bodies. The water vascular system uses cilia and the constant contracting ampullae to keep things moving. An ionic imbalance causes water to flow into the madreporite, entering the water vascular system. Some of this water is turned into another direction into the perivisceral coelom (the large cavity), where it is circulated by the beating of cilia. Most oxygen enters the starfish through diffusion into the tube feet, or the papulae (small sacs covering the upper body surface). The starfishs mouth is located underneath the sea star on the oral or ventral surface, it eats  bivalves like mussels, clams, and oysters; or any animal slow enough to be unable to protect it self. Some have specialized tube feet that can extend and catch preys. Starfish have two stomachs including cardiac and pyloric. Cardiac stomach is pushed out of the organism's body and used to digest food. Starfishes dont have a brain, their ring nerves and radial nerves control their direction and balance. But their tube feet, spine, pedicellariae are sensitive to touch.
Crinoidea

Ophiocistioidea

Asteroidea

Echinoidea

Holothuroidea

http://www.earthlife.net/inverts/echinodermata.html

http://www.junglewalk.com/info/star-fish-information.htm

Double fertilization

Double fertilization is the process in most flower plants where two male gametes enter the embryo sac and both get involve in the fertilization process. One male gamete mixes with the female gamete/egg nucleus to form a zygote , which turns into the embryo. The other male gamete mixes with either the polar nuclei (or the defenitive nucleus) to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus, which will start the endosperm. 

Pictures are from Google Images

http://www.science20.com/news_releases/fbl17_discovery_gene_behind_%E2%80%98plant_sex_mystery%E2%80%99
http://www.gardenguides.com/87589-process-double-fertilization-flowering-plants.html

Genome BOW 10: Self-Interest

Genomes is broken up into many different paragraphs (called .exons) and in between has long stretches (called introns). Genes are protein recipes, but not  all are the best. The common one in the entire genome is called reverse transciptase, it is a gene that that has no purpose at all. The role of reverse transcriptase is that it takes an RNA copy of a gene and copies it back into DNA and puts it back into the genome like a return ticket for a copy of a gene. It means that aids virus can get a copy of its own genome into human DNA to conceal it and maintain it, to get it copied faster. Selfish DNA adds to the size of the genome and therefore to the energy cost of copying the genome. It is in habit of jumping from one location too another or sending copies to new location  it will land in the middle of the working genes which messed them up and then jumping out again causing the mutation to revert. DNA fingerprinting has changed not only forensic science but other fields as well, it helped proved innocent people were right. It has been simplified so single sites of minisatelites can be used to give unique bar codes. The application of DNA fingerprinting to paternity test changed our understanding of bird song, from am experiment biologist discovered that most monogamous of birds where just one male and one female faithfully help each other to rear the brood and the females mate quite often with neighboring males other then other ostensible spouses. All in all,  male birds sings hard when already married because they are looking for affairs.

Genome BOW 9: Death

This chapter starts out with how when you learn new things at the same time you will lose old things you learned before. Mutation is also a cause of disease. Detecting cancer early in development of tumor is important because the larger the tumor becomes the more likely it is going to suffer the next mutation because of probability and rapid proliferation of inside the tumor can lead to mistakes also called as mutation. Apoptosiss has a role on the function that the elimination of cancer cells, it is useful in fighting the ordinary infectious disease. If a cell detects that it had been infected with a virus it can kill itself for good of the body as a whole. It can be also be useful in preventing mutiny than cancer like genetic distortion of the kind induced by selfish tanspoon. Apoptosis has no central planning and no bodily politburo to decide who should die and live. Apoptosis will kill itself if infected, cancerous or genetically mischievous, a cell will die by definition. So there is understanding of how apoptosis evolves.

Geome BOW 8: Immotality

This chapter talks about how this genome seem  to be immortal because the genes we have in our body now are from the unbroken chain of descent links of probably over fifty billion copying over 4 billion years ago.But if the gene is immortal then why does the body die? The body dies because through the four billion years of continuous photocopying did not dull any messages in genes but it is the human skin that slowly loses its elasticity as we age. It also talks about how chromosomes can be copied several hundred times enough to blur the message they contain. So if the fifty billion copying since life you did not inherit the genes you inherit, it is because of chromosome 14 . In the shape of the gene called TEP1, the product of it is a protein which forms most unusual telomerase. So the lack of telomerase causes it put it bluntly, senescence. Also the addition of telomerase will turn certain cells to immortal. Humans are well protected which is why we age slowly and probably more slowly as the era passes. Our infant mortality rate of around fifty percent before age fifty five is high in modern western but is low compared to animals. Natural selection allowed humans to see their children into dependence but no more because at age fifty five and seventy five most people grow grey, stiff, weak, creaky, and deaf.

Genome BOW 7: Fate

Diseases lies in fate. We only know that every genes malfunction can causes a particular disease. The saying that "x has hot the Wolf_Hirschhorn gene" is wrong. Everyone actually has the Wolf-Hirschhorn gene, but people who has Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome is the one that is actually missing the gene. This means the sickness is caused from the fact that the gene is missing. The sufferers have the mutation, not the gene. In this chapter it talk about if the huntingtin gene is damaged then why does it work all right for the next thirty years? It is because the mutant form of huntingtin often accumulate in big chunks (it is this accumulation of a sticky lump of protein within the cell that causes the death of the cell that causes death). Another disease Huntington deasease is at the far end of the chart of genetics. It is pure fatalism, straight by environmental varaiables. So all in all, good environment/living, good medicine, healthy food, loving families, and being rich can do nothing about diseases. Your fate in in your genes.

Genome BOW 6: Life

Life is consisted of the ability to replicate and to create order. The ability to replicate is made possible by the existence of a recipe which is the information that is needed to create a new body. Genes contains DNA that is a message written in a code of chemicals, giving one letter for each letter. It only has four letters; A, C, G, and T which represents information, replication, breeding, and sex. RNA is a chemical substance that links RNA and proteins, it is used mainly to translate messages from the alphabet of DNA to the alphabet of proteins. It is hard to identify the earliest form of life because creatures today have genes except from their parents, but that could not have been fully true. For example, bacteria can get genes from other bacteria by eating it. Lastly it is believed that there was only one creation and one single event when life was born.

Genome BOW 5: Disease

Chromosome 9 is a well known gene that determines ABO blood type. The universal ABO system includes A, B, AB, and O which was discovered by Viennese. Type A can donate to A and AB, type B can donate to B and AB, type AB can only donate to AB, and O can donate to any blood types. The difference between blood A and B is 7 letters out of the 1062. The difference between type a and b from o blood type is that they are the same but o has deletion of letters. It is shown that O blood types are more affected to chloera but resistant to malaria. Type A, B, and AB are resistant to cholera and are affected to malaria. Cystic fibrosis is a gene on chromosome 7, it is a dangerous disease in the lungs and intestines but also protects the body from typhoid intestinal disease. An experience was made which resulted with choosing mates based on genes to prevent disease; Four men and women wears a cotton shirt for 2 night with no scent and 121 men and women will sniff and rate it from best to worst. It resulted with men and women both prefer body odor of the opposite sex who are genetically different from then genetically.

Genome BOW 4: Memory

Located on Chromosome 16 are genes that allow learning and memory. Learning is from the provinces of neuroscience and psychology which is opposite of instinct. Instinct is genetically determined behavior and learning is behavior through experience but have very little in common. It is believed that learning is good and instinct is bad. Some things learnt and others are distinctive because  by forcing ourselves to learn something we place ourselves in a selective environment that put the future instincts solution to the problem. Therefore meaning that learning gradually gives way to instinct. It is believed that integrins are central to learning and memory. In 1990 it was discovered that there are drugs that act as integrins could affect memory. Example, LTP known as long term potentiation seems to be the main event in the creation of a memory. The human brain is really impressive, if you prefer geometry, it is an analogue three dimensional machine instead of a digital one dimensional, and if you like thermodynamics it will make alot of heat. The brain is one the complex finest which will never be fully understood.

Genome BOW 3: Personality

The gene that affects personality is located chromosome 11 on its short arm which is the gene called D4DR. This gene is the way to make the protein called dopamine receptor and it is switched on in cells of certain parts of the brain but not the rest. Dopamine role is to control the flow of blood through the brain, but a shortage of dopamine causes an indecisive and frozen personality. Too little dopamine also makes the person lack initiative and motivation. Too much will make the person easily bored setting out adventures. Known as the brains punishment chemical, serotonin, it is the chemical that abets anxiety and depressionIt has different ways to respond to outside influence such as social signals. All in all, personality is affected by the hormones of the body to the chemicals of the mind.                                                                                                      

Genome BOW 2: Stress

Chromosome 10 also known as stress genome has many past history of plagues all over it. Eating well, sleep well, and avoiding stress is a way to keep immune system in a healthy condition. Short term stressors cause an immediate increase in epinephrine and nonrepinephrine (means the hormones that make the heart beat feet and makes the feet cold). Cortisol makes you more affected to disease because in white blood cells cortisol turns on TCF to makes its own proteins when its job is to suppress another protein. Because cortisol hold back the immune alertness of the white blood calls it makes people more vulnerable to diseases. The effect of stress lowers immune survellance of doormat infections, which means stress can a factor for cause of disease. So whenever you are stressed by a life event it makes you easily attacked by cancer and diseases. For example: wheever an animal raise its testoronelevel to fight its enemies for mates it becomes more vulnerable to infections.

Genome BOW 1: Intelligence

A gene for intelligence was found in the end of 1977 by a scientist. There is no correct definition of intelligence. It is factors of thinking speed, reasoning ability, memory, vocabulary, mental arithmetic,mental energy. Accoding to Robert Sternberg there are three intelligence that are analytical, creative, and practical. Analytical are people that needs to have the information needed to solve them and have only one right answer and have no intrinsic interest like a school exam. Practical is when you recognize and formulate the problem itself, they are poorly defined, lack relevant information and may not have a single answer but spring directly out of life everyday. It is known that schools and the IQ tests concentrate on analytic and problems. IQ test are unfair because it only focus on certain kinds of minds. IQ stays constant at different ages, ages six and eighteen  will have your intelligence increase fast but your IQ of your peers will change a bit. IQ scores similar with school test results. High IQ children are often to absorb more things that are taught in school. People with high IQ's are said to have more symmetrical bodies ( a measure of how much stress the body was under when developing, stress from infections, toxins, and poor nutrients) had fewer developmental stress in womb or were more resistant to stress during it in a womb.

Extra Credit Blog

Extra Credit Blog:
What topics really confused you?

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
What topics do you feel very clear on?
cells
What lab/ activity was your favorite? Why?
Leaf
What lab/activity was your least favorite? Why?

If you could change something about the class to make it better, for instance the type of homework (not the amount) what would it be and why?
The labs online because it is confusing sometimes.

Blog 17 : Plant division examples

Charophyceans: algae
In the water, algae were supported. Every cell had contact with the ocean, which brought water and nourishment that could be absorbed through the cell wall. Reproduction was simple: algae released their eggs and sperm cells into the water where they could meet and form tough little capsules called zoospores. On land, all this changed. Algae cast up on the sea shore or trapped in evaporating ponds were subjected to drying winds and often to large temperature swings. At first they probably just died, but over millions of years a few algae were able to resist short periods of dryness and live on. These became the ancestors of our land plants.

Bryophytes: mosses
They form low mats, and the little plants, grouped tightly together, can absorb water like sponges. They do not have roots, although a cell at the bottom of each sprig forms a rhizoid that clings to rocks and other surfaces. Mosses do not have vascular structures (tubes like our veins for moving fluids around inside themselves) , but they do have an effective method of reproduction called alternation of generations. This method protects and nurtures the vulnerable zygote. A zygote is the new cell that is produced by the union of the genetic material from two parents. It is the cell from which a new and unique organism will grow. Mosses found a way to keep the zygote moist and alive. The zygote grows into a structure that makes spores, and the tiny spores float away in the air.

Pteridophytes: Ferns
Ferns are the plants that developed vascular systems. Some ferns still have rhizoids, but they also have roots. This makes it possible for ferns to grow into large plants. Ferns do not have true seeds. They reproduce by alternation of generations. When you turn fern fronds over, you can often see little dots on the underside. These dots are groups of spores. When the dots are brown, the spores are getting ripe and will soon be released from the plant. Spores are tiny, and will float away in the air. Some of them will come down in a new place that is favorable for fern growth.

Gymnosperms: naked seed
The first seed-bearing plants are called gymnosperms. Gymnosperm means "naked seed" because these seeds have only a dry, thin covering instead of a sturdy protective seed coat.One important change was the development of pollen to replace the swimming sperm. Pollen could float on the wind and was not damaged by the dry air. The plants made pollen cones (see picture above) which made only pollen and small, tough woody cones in which the female half of the process could be protected. (See picture with blue-green cones here.) The pollen fell on these woody cones and grew tubes down to find the ovules (eggs). After the eggs were fertilized, they developed and matured in the cone. The seed that resulted could survive drought in a dormant state. It could wait for a favorable season to begin its growth. It had a package of food to draw on when it germinated. These seeds were well adapted to the land.

Angiosperms: flowering seed
About a hundred and thirty million years ago, a new kind of plant appeared. This plant developed two innovations. First, the new plants produced flowers. Flowers allowed the plants to form partnerships with insects, and insects, in exchange for pollen and nectar, greatly increased the efficiency of the plants' pollination.Second, the parent plant provided a protective covering for the seed. Sometimes this covering took the form of a burr or a fruit, which improved the dispersal of the seeds to other places.

Blog 16 : Beak/ Time, Love, Memory

Three key ideas from Time, Love, Memory:


1. A story about a study by Alfred Sturtevant, who was a student of Morgans in 1911. It all started when Morgan postulated the arms of chromosomes crossing over and exchanging the same sections of DNA. When Sturtevant found out what Morgan did he collected the laboratorys report on the breeding of animals with different forms of gened on the same chromosome and based on the probablity of two genes moving together and figured out the order of the genes and their relative distances on the chromosome. This first genetic map stayed as an important construct of gnomics and was understood in a single night by Sturtevant at the age of 19.


2. The experiment by Thomas Hunt Morgan to see if the fly has genes for eye color on the x chromosome He knew that if the mother gives an X chromosome with a gene for white eyes and the father also gives X chromosome then they will have white eyes. But if either of her parents gives her an X chromosome then they will have red eye because red eyes are dominant in flies. He injected acid based with salt, sugar and alcohol into flies. It resulted with the next and next and the ongoing generations after to have the genes in flies. The red and white flies ended up with 1,237 red flies with an white eye in every two red eyes.


3. A test tubed experiment modeled after a laboratory routine where chemist use a trick to separate two compounds that were mixed together done by Benzer. He assumed that most flies liked lights and wanted flies to sort themselves into two or ore or less pure set of particles : light and or dark lovers and after he would look for the genes that made the difference. The experiment was called T4r2. He used milk bottles and placed a dozen of flies in each of the two with one with light and one with no light (dark). It resulted with 7/8 of the flies in the light milk bottle and 1/8 of the flies in the milk bottle with no light.

Blog 15 : Lives of a Cell

This article is about the author explaining his thoughts that the universe including Earth and human beings and everything are just like a single cell. I agree with him. He states that humans are "shared, rented, occupied, meaning that the interior of our cells drives them providing the oxidative energy that send us out for  improvements". And that mitochondria are not ours but little creatures. I agree that since mitochondrias have maintained themselves and their ways, replicating in their own fashion privately, which makes their own dna and rna different than humans. My desicion to agree with his side was because he exmplained how we all "derived originally from some single cell which fertilized in a bolt of lighting as the Earth cooled. We share genes around and the resemblies of the ensymes of grasses to those of whales is a family resemblance". Since Earth is too big and complex with too many working parts lacking visible connection makes it not like an organism but like a single cell.

Blog 14 : Cell Wordle

http://www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/4710664/cells

All prokaryotes and eukaryotes contains cells which are different in size and complexity. Prokaryotes (and bacteria/archae) does not contain a nuclei or other membrane enclosed organelles. All other organisms have eukaryotic cells with membrane enclosed nuclieand other membraneous organelles in the cytoplasm. Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles. Free ribosomes in the cytosol and bound ribosomes on the outside of ER and the nuclear envelope synthesize proteins. Stacks of separate cisternate make up the golgo which recieves secretory proteins from ER transport vesicles, they are sorted, and changed. Lysosomes are membraneous sac of hydrolytic enzymes which breaks down cell macromolecule. A plants cell vacuole functions in storage, waste disposla, cell growth and protection. Mitochondria which is the site of cellular respiration in eukaryotes have an outer/inner membrane folded into criastae. Chloroplast contains chlorphyll that functions in photosynthesis. Plant walls are composed of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysacharrides and proteins. Water flows across a membrane from the side where solute is less concentrated (hypotonic) to the side where solute is more concentrated (hypertonic). If the concentrations are equal (isotonic) no osmosis will occur. In exocytosis, transport vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane, fuse with it, and release. In endocytosis, large molecules enter cells with vesicles pinched inward from the plasma membrane. Animal cells signal nearby cells secreting local regulators or nerve cells by secreting neurotransmitters at synapses. Both animal and plant cells use hormones for signaling over long distances. CElls can communicate by direct contact. Three stages of cell signaling: The signal molecule epinephrine binds to receptors on a cells surface which is reception, leading to a series of changes in the receptor and other molecules inside the cell which is transduction and finally to the activation of an enzyme that breaks down glycogen.

Blog 13 : Article : On Societies as Organisms

I agree with the article "On Societies as Organisms" where the humans social behavior resembles the social  behavior of ants. Ants are just like human beings they "farm fungi, raise sphids as livestocks, launch armies into wars, use chemical sprays to alarm and confuse enemies, and capture slaves".They do everything but watch television. But they seem to live two kind of lives as individuals without thought about tommorrow and they are at the same time component parts, cellular elements in the next/hive. Also, bees live lives of organisms, tissues cells , organelles all at the same time. It believe that it is also true that we humans are the most social of all social animals, more interdependable, more attached to each other, and more inseperable in our behavior compared to bees but we dont feel conjoined intelligence.

Blog 12 : Article : Thoughts for a Countdown

"Thought for a Countdown" and article gives evidence on how life is similar and "interconnected and humans having ". i agree with this article because it stated that bacteria that live in tissues on insects have the apperance of specialized organs in their host and cannot survive long without them. They are transmitted like mitochondira from to generation to generation of eggs. Also that there is a symbiotic linkages between prokaryotic cells were origin of eukaryotes and that fusion between different kind ok eukaryotes led to the contrsuction of communities. From his shown of peoples thoughts has convinced me to agree with this article.

Blog 11 : Cell Poem

Hello Cells

I just wanted to thank you for functioning me!

And I think you should thank those who functioned you as well!

You should thank the cell wall for protection,

cell memebrane for regulating movements of water, nutrition, and waste into and out of the cell,

the nucleus for controlling cells avtivities,

ribosomes for synthesizing proteins,

mitochondria for being the site of aerobic cellular respiration releasing energy,

lysosome for helping you break down large food moelecules and digestion of old cell parts,

chloroplast which allows plant to obtain energy from sunlight and releases Oxygen.

I hope after you thank them you will feel like how i feel about you

thankful and appreciative



Blog 10 : Benefitial Bacteria

Staphylococcus Epidermidis Bacteria

This bacteria is one of the beneficial bacteria. It is one of the normal microbial flora of the skin and being on the skin provides important defense against harmful bacteria. There are approximately 10,000 to 100,000 Staphylococcus epidermidis on each square centimeter of skin. Some of them are on the outermost layer of the skin, while others are in the hair follicles and will travel to the outer skin layer after people wash their hands. This bacteria is also found in the mucous membranes of the throat.



Lactobacilli Bacteria

Lactobacilli is a friendly bacteria found in the digestive tract. These bacteria got their name (lacto) because they are able to form lactic acid. They play a role in producing fermented foods, fermented milk, yogurt, and cheeses. They are referred to “probiotic” since they are positive or supportive microorganisms. This bacteria inhabits the vagina and makes it stop being acidic. When reached puberty many Lactobacilli are now in the vagina so it becomes acidic again. The acidic created by the Lactobacilli bacteria protects the vagina from being harmed by microorganisms.

Lactobacillus rhamnosis

Found in natural milk products like organic yogurt and beneficial to overall health, it has been used as a nutritional supplement and can be bought over-the-counter. It is naturally found in the human digestive tract and helps to maintain health by releasing lactic acid. Lactic acid lowers a person's pH, so that harmful bacteria are kept under control.  It also helps destroy harmful bacteria and helps the absorption of minerals by helping lactose digestion. It also causes the body to make natural antibiotic substances to fight disease, increases  resistance to viral infections and prevents diarrhea.







Blog 9 : Cellular Metabolism Wordle

http://www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/4710584/cellular_metabolism

Cellular metabolism are chemical processes that allows organism to respond to the environment, extrac get energy, grow, reproduce and maintain itself. It is grouped into catabolic processes that are involved with energyextraction, and anabolic processes, which involve the use of energy for growth and tissue repair. Atp is used as an barrier of chemical energy and has three phosphate graoups attached and can be broken down by hyddrolysis to release energy and are added in a covalent bond during respiration. ATP is used to drive active transport, and other chemical reactions such as photosynthesis, and cellular respiration. Plants depend on photosynthesis to obtain energy and chlorophyll to carry out the process. It contains two steps, photosystem which Atp is produced which will turn carbon dioxide into glucose, and the Calvin cycle which fixes carbon molecules from carbon dioxide into glucose without light. Overall process: 6CO₂ + 12H₂O + sunlight -> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O_2. O₂ is released as a byproduct. Cells use Atp for energy gets it from cellular respiration in three stages: Step 1 is where food breaks down into sugar, lipid, and amino acids, Step 2 is where molecules from stage 1 is turned into a intermediate product, and Step 3 is where food is turned into ATP. When oxygen is not available cells go through fermentation produce energy.

Blog 8 : Bacteria vs. Virus vs. Protist

Bacteria are considered organisms and are made up of one cell. They do not have a nuclear envelopeand  membrane bound organelles. It has circular chromosomes and are diverse in the molecules they use for food/ habitats they occupy. They can be found at the bottom of the ocean, in boiling hot springs, and maybe even on other planets. Bacteria reproduce asexually. And when mutations are not an issue and no genetic material has been transferred from other bacteria or viruses, the daughter cells will be identical to the parent.



Viruses are not cells and are not made up of cells so they are not considered organisms. They are agents/particles that cannot make their own ATP/ carbon-containing compounds, so they rely on cells for energy and replication. Viruses are considered parasites because without other organisms viruses would just exist and would not be reproducing or catalyzing molecules. They have genome, so it is not determined iif it is alive or not. There are a lot more viruses in the world than any type of organism.

Protists do have a nuclear envelope and organelles. Their cytoskeleton gives them structure. It is common for protists to sexually reproduce but its not always. They undergo cell division through mitosis. Protists have DNA within their nucleus that is made with many parts with proteins called histones. Protists can be made up of several cells and are larger than bacteria. Due to their membrane bound organelles, each cell can specialize in a task. They can be parasitic, predatory or even photosynthetic in nature. They live in moist area.

Blog 7 : Bacterial Transformation and Transduction

In bacterial transformation and transduction, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer was the inventor who discovered bacteria transformation and transduction and was even rewarded the 1996 Lemelson-MIT Prize for Invention and Innovation. It all started with a collaboration in Hawaii in 1972 and the conference's topic was bacterial plasmids which are circular segments of DNA thatis a  permenant source the cells carrying them with antibiotic resistance and other medical benefits. Boyer's lab recently isolated an enzyme that could be used to cut strings of DNA into precise and "cohesive" segments to carry the code for a pre-determined protein and be attached to other strands of DNA. Cohen developed a method to introduce antibiotic-carrying plasmids into certain bacteria and isolating/ cloning genes carried by plasmids. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer put their resources together resulting with Boyer's enzyme would allow Cohen to introduce specific DNA segments to plasmids and to use those plasmids as a vehicle for cloning precise, previously targeted strands of DNA. In four months,  their labs had succeeded in cloning predetermined patterns of DNA.